It is a feature of modernization to raise utopian hopes while delivering a dystopian lifeworld. The precept should be kept in mind in evaluating current claims that we are moving into a "post-work" society (Aronowitz and Di Fazio 1994; Aronowitz and Cutler 1998; Hochschild 1997). Similar claims have been uttered in every century since the Renaissance. Thus, in the seventeenth century the English Ranters articulated a fully developed anti-work philosophy; in the eighteenth century, Enlightenment savants like Adam Smith, Turgot and St. Simon estimated that if National Income were more fairly distributed, nobody would be poor and nobody need work more than a few hours a day; in the nineteenth century, utopian socialists like Fourier and Proudhon, predicted that socialist transformation would minimize work obligations and result in "the realm of freedom"; and as we saw earlier in this study, twentieth-century commentators like Mumford and Bataille argued that technology and productivity have outpaced the work ethic and that human beings need to devise a new social and moral discipline to live happily in the new technological and economic conditions.